The social transformations on child abuse and neglect have been occurring since the beginning of recorded history. In ancient and prehistoric cultures children’s rights did not exist. Children were maltreated and not valued. Infanticide was widely accepted, especially on infants that cried too much, or were sick, deformed, twins, or children of unmarried women. Their parents were the ones to decide if their children had the right to live (Gelles, 2001). In addition, children were also used as labor and sexual slaves (Helfer, Kempe, & Krugman, p. 10). Mary Ellen Wilson’s case, in 1874, was the turning point in regards to children’s welfare. Mary Ellen was an eight-year-old girl who was maltreated by her step-mother. Her neighbor turned to the police, who did not consider having enough proof. Finally, Mary Ellen’s neighbor contacted a friend who was the founder and president of the Society for Protection of Cruelty to Animals, Henry Bergh. Bergh took the case to court pleading Mary Ellen as an animal in need of protection. As a result, the development of protective laws of child abuse and neglect took place.  In December 1874, the New York Society for prevention of Cruelty to Children was founded when services and protection for children occurred. Many protective societies appeared and disappeared during the next 80 years. Furthermore, in 1958, a hospital-based child protective team at Colorado General Hospital in Denver with their article “The Battered Child Syndrome” brought the beginning of the modern concern for child abuse and neglect, which has expanded nationally and internationally in the past four decades. Finally, in 1912, the Children’s Bureau was founded and has been involved into many activities regarding child maltreatment. “The Children’s Bureau continues to coordinate the federal effort to prevent and treat the abuse and neglect of children in the United States” (Gelles, 2001). “There are an infinite number of questions and dilemmas about where to draw the line between appropriate and acceptable behavior versus inappropriate and unacceptable behavior” (Gelles, 2001). Child abuse and neglect issues in today’s society force new laws and definitions continuously change to adapt to modern cases. Throughout the years, definitions of child abuse and neglect protective laws expanded. For instance, a distinctive transition happened among the Federal Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Acts of 1974 and 1984. In 1974, the law in child abuse and neglect was the following: “The physical or mental injury, sexual abuse, negligent treatment, or maltreatment of a child under the age of eighteen by a person who is responsible for the child’s welfare under circumstances which indicate that a child’s health and welfare is harmed or threatened thereby” (Public Law, 2005). In 1984, the Child Abuse Prevention Act defined child abuse and neglect as:“The physical or mental injury, sexual abuse or exploitation, negligent treatment, or maltreatment of a child under the age of eighteen or the age specified by the child protective law of the state in question, by a person (Including an employee or a residential facility or any staff person providing out-of-home care) who is responsible for the child’s welfare under circumstances which indicate that the child’s health or welfare is harmed of threatened thereby, as determined in regulations perceived by the Secretary.Problems defining child abuse and neglect continue to rise because there is no “universal standard for what constitutes optimal child rearing”
(Korbin, 1981). Society has developed different categories of child abuse and neglect and   its definitions.  A definition from the National Center on Child Abuse and Neglect states, “an abused or neglected child is a child whose physical or mental health or welfare is harmed, or threatened with harm, by the acts or omissions of the child’s parent, or other persons responsible for that child’s welfare.” Basically, the term “abuse” refers to any “non-accidental” inflictions of injury or harm to a child by the care giver.” It includes: physical or mental injury caused by excessive corporal injury; sexual offense; failure to supply adequate food, clothing, shelter, education, or health care; abandoning; failure to provide adequate supervision; and emotional abuse, which could be related to physical abuse or neglect or just be a separate psychological phenomenon” (Rycus & Hughes, 2001).
           

The outcomes (results) of child abuse and neglect lead to long and short-term effects such as death, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, sexual promiscuity, continued cycle of abuse, and poor academic performance (Paolucci, Genius, & Violato, 2001). A persuasive negative effect on the child’s future development and emotional health persist throughout their adult lives. Long-term consequences of child abuse vary according to age when abuse begins, length of time the child is abused, frequency of abuse child’s relationship with the abuser, nature and extent of abuse, availability to the child of support, and constitutional factors (child’s inherent personality and temperament can affect the abuser’s reactions towards the child) (Rycus & Hughes, 2001). First, the one short-term effect of child abuse and neglect is death of the victim which can be committed by the perpetrator or the victim (suicide). For instance, in Megan Kanka’s case, she was raped and murdered by her neighbor, a convicted sex offender (Rein, Jacobs, & Quiram, 2001). Second, the Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is the most common diagnosis for children who were abused (Graham, 1993). Graham also wrote that, according to Kolb (1987), a clinical neuropsychological study revealed that victims of trauma become hypersensitive to sights, sounds, smells, touch, and mixed sensations associated with their trauma, as well as their own responses to these stimulations. They are sensitive to the sensations that may recall the abuse where repeated intense emotional responses to sensations associated with the abuse trigger changes in the brain and in the neurological system. The PTSD is a result of violent traumas such as physical abuse or aggressive sexual abuse (Gelles, 2001). For example, Kevin Wiggins was convicted of murder for drowning the seventy-seven year old, Florence Lacs, in her bathtub. Wiggin’s was sentenced to death, but due to his traumatic child abuse past, his case was overturned. Wiggin’s alcoholic mother abandoned, starved, and physically abused him as a child. At the age of eight, Wiggins was sexually abused by his foster parents and by a job counselor (Weinstein, 2003). Third, the depression outcome varies according to the offense and always accompanies all other outcomes of child abuse and neglect. Examples can be found in all cases of maltreatment or neglect. Fourth, sexual promiscuity is mainly an outcome of sexual abuse although all types of abuse can also lead to sexual promiscuity.  It includes precocious sexual knowledge and inappropriate sexualized behaviors (Rycus & Hughes, 2001). The case of Eileen Wuornos is an example of sexual promiscuity where she became a prostitute as a result of being sexually abused as a child. Wuornos “was raped and impregnated at 14, possibly by her grandfather,... was forced to give up her baby, then was tossed out to live on her own. At 16, she was on a career path as a street hooker” (Helfer, 1997). Fifth, all victims of child abuse and neglect are more likely to continue the vicious cycle of becoming the perpetrator later on in life. The Lynn case is a clear example of this cycle. Lynne, was a survivor of sexual, physical, and verbal abuse for seven years. She faced difficulties having relationships and sex, abused drugs and alcohol, and threatened to kill herself.  At the age of twenty-eight, Lynne had a son who she abused and hated as a result of postnatal depression (Bowles, 2004). Lynne suffered serious long-term effects, and continued the cycle of abuse by abusing her son.  Last, any type of abuse or neglect can cause poor academic performance; however, some victims may excel academically under the same circumstances. For instance, in Dave Pelzer’s case, he was one of the best students of his classroom even though he was a victim of severe physical and emotional abuse at home. In fact, he won the school-wide election for the school newspaper’s title (Pelzer, 1995). It is important to mention that the most negative outcomes occur when the offender is the child’s primary father figure, the abuse involves direct contact with child’s genitals, and physical and/or emotional abuses are combined with the sexual abuse (Rycus &Hughes, 2001).
           

Many types of people, who are mandated to report cases, play an important role with child abuse and neglect.  The “mandated reporters” are defined in the California Child Abuse and Neglect Reporting Law, Penal Code P.C. 11165.7. They include: teachers,  any classified employee of any public school or child care institution, public assistant worker, social worker, probation or parole officer, attorney, firefighter, doctors, marriage, family, and child counselor, state or county public health employee, commercial film processor, employee of any police department, etc. (Lockyer, 2003). In addition, interviews with some of the different types of people who handle child abuse and neglect contribute to a more informed vision of real life cases.
           

The first interview, conducted on 03-20-04, was with police officer Ray Placentia from the Huntington Beach Police Department. He has been working for the police for the past 14 years where he has handled various types of child abuse cases. He classified them into five different categories: endangerment, sexual, physical, neglect, and narcotics. The officer shared one of his experiences about a father of a 12-year-old girl, who got reported by “someone very close to the situation.” The person who reported the case said that this girl looked and dressed like an 18 year old and was being sexually abused by her father, who in fact paid for her breast augmentation. Officer Placentia added that the girl denied all allegations and said “I’m a minor and I’m not supposed to talk to the police or others because they are bad.” The officer also commented that she was clearly a victim of sexual abuse and manipulation and expressed his feelings about this kind of situation: “I feel sorry for the kids, it’s very heartening, and it’s too bad that the parents are not taking on the responsibilities for their children.” Officer Placentia also explained that the police are always involved by taking the child from home and processing the case report. The social services are present at that point only when they are the ones who reported the case. The child is usually moved to a family member’s house or if that option is not available, they send them to the Orangewood Children’s Home, which is a home for children to stay temporarily while the investigation is completed by both Social Services and the police.
                       

Finally, on 04-22-04, a second interview was conducted with Shirley Gellatly who has worked for the Human Options for thirteen years. There, she worked her way up starting from a volunteer and studying Psychology at the University of California, Irvine. Today, she is the Community Education Director, and has a Masters Degree in Psychology, which she acquired at the Cal-State Fullerton. Shirley explained that the Human Options is a non-profit organization that provides assistance for abused women and children. This institution has walk-in assistance with counseling and legal services and also shelter for abused women who need to stay away from their homes. The shelter invokes a regular home in order to make mothers and children to feel just like at home other than at an institution. When a phone call is placed, the abused mother and children are sent to a police station and then taken to one of their four facilities in Orange County. In order to guarantee safety, they are taken to a facility that is not the closest one to their home. Shirley stated that only six percent of the battered women call the shelter for help, but the ones that do, rarely go back home (to the abuser) after the treatment. In case the mothers go back to their home, the child is immediately taken to child protection service’s care. She also mentioned that fifty percent of the children who come to the shelter with their mothers are also victims of abuse and that seventy-five percent of all child abuse cases happens in a house where domestic violence is present. One third of these children are the ones who call 911 when the violence is taking place. In addition, studies done at the shelter concluded that after the first year the children left the shelter, they start to experience learning and behavioral problems. In 2003, Human Options received 1,700 calls including walk-ins. In Shirley’s opinion the biggest challenge for the mothers is to get out of the relationship, find affordable housing, and become self-sufficient. The shelter also provides sand therapy and art therapy for the children and group therapy for the mothers. Each also have their case manager, a social worker, and a counselor to help them move on with their lives. Last, Shirley seemed to be very proud of her job. She stated that she has got an endless hope to help others and that this keeps her motivation up. She believes that child abuse is a cycle and that even one single incident might affect a child’s brain chemistry and cause trauma or disabilities to the child. She said that fifty percent of all women that are battered grew up in a home where they were abused, and that seventy-four percent of all men that are abusers were abused as a child as well. She also added that, in average, thirty percent of all women are abused every year but unfortunately only a few (six percent) actually report the case or get reported by someone else.
           

According to Hawley and Gunner, much research reveals that the child’s experiences determine how the brain, the most immature of all organs, since their birth, continues to grow and develop. Some areas of the brain become less flexible after the “window of opportunity” (first three years of brain development, where the brain develops up to ninety percent of an adult’s brain) closes. Experiences during this early and vulnerable stage of life are “critical to shaping the capacity to form intimate and emotionally healthy relationships” (Perry, 2002). Thus, it is extremely important to provide the brain what it needs to develop within this period. By providing adequate care and safety to infants, they will then focus their attention into exploring the world around them. If these needs are not met, infants will then focus their energy on ensuring that these needs are met. Perry also mentioned that “healthy attachments to the mother built by respective bonding experiences during infancy provide the solid foundation for future relationships.” In contrast, problems with bonding and attachment can lead to a fragile biological and emotional foundation for future relationships (1995). Furthermore, although researches on brain development suggest continuous opportunity for change into adulthood by offering many kinds of therapy, the costs of repairing are much greater than the costs of preventing these problems. Promoting healthy development of the brain during the first few years of life becomes possible when parents learn good parenting skills on how to nurture and stimulate their children, and prevent maltreatment before it starts (Hawley & Gunner, 2000). Finally, Vachss explains that healthy, happy, productive children do not turn out that way by accident. Providing a child with safety climate and treating them as “our most precious resource,” are the key treatments to our species (1996). The healthy development of our society is in the hands of those in charge of parenting their children and preventing traumatic events to happen guarantying then, well developed children that will become well developed adults tomorrow.